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The ¯ cochlea adjoins the wall of the vestibule antibiotic levaquin clindamycin 300 mg order amex, in to which the scala vestibuli opens. The spiral organ is a coiled sheet of epithelial cells, including supporting cells and about 16,000 hair cells, which are the receptors for hearing. At the apical tip of each hair cell is a hair bundle consisting of 40­80 long, hairlike microvilli that extend in to the endolymph of the cochlear duct and are arranged in several rows of graded height. At their basal ends, hair cells synapse with sensory neurons from the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve. If you lost your auricles (common in severe burns of the head), how would your hearing be affected List the auditory ossicles in order of sound wave transmission through the middle ear. A "detached retina" occurs when the neural layer of the retina separates from the pigmented layer. The ophthalmologist said you had some abnormalities with your eyes: high intraocular pressure, some small hemorrhages in the vasculature of your retinas, and poor accommodation. During the laser procedure, his eye was numbed, then a gas bubble was injected in to the eye. After the procedure Dan could see, but his vision was blurry in the eye that had been operated on. It then slid down over his fovea centralis, the part of his retina needed for good vision. Sounds of speech primarily contain frequencies between 100 and 3000 Hz, and the "high C" sung by a soprano has a dominant frequency at 1048 Hz. The larger the intensity (size or amplitude) of the vibration, the louder is the sound. The hearing threshold-the point at which an average young adult can just distinguish sound from silence-is defined as 0 dB. Rustling leaves have a decibel level of 15; whispered speech, 30; normal conversation, 60; a vacuum cleaner, 75; shouting, 80; and a nearby motorcycle or jackhammer, 90. Sound becomes uncomfortable to a normal ear at about 120 dB, and painful above 140 dB. The Nature of Sound Waves In order to understand the physiology of hearing, it is necessary to learn something about its input, which occurs in the form of sound waves. Sound waves are alternating high- and low-pressure regions traveling in the same direction through some medium (such as air). They originate from a vibrating object in much the same way that ripples arise and travel over the surface of a pond when you toss a stone in to it. The number of sound waves that arrive in a given time is defined as frequency of a sound and is measured in hertz (Hz; 1 Hz 1 cycle per second). Because prolonged noise exposure causes hearing loss, employers in the United States must require workers to use hearing protectors when occupational noise levels exceed 90 dB.

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As a result infection synonym 300 mg clindamycin purchase mastercard, the zone of calcified cartilage becomes "new diaphysis" that is firmly cemented to the rest of the diaphysis of the bone. The activity of the epiphyseal plate is the only way that the diaphysis can increase in length. As a bone grows, new chondrocytes are formed on the epiphyseal side of the plate, while old chondrocytes on the diaphyseal side of the plate are replaced by osseous tissue. The epiphyseal cartilage cells stop dividing, and bone replaces all of the cartilage. The appearance of the epiphyseal line signifies that the bone has stopped growing in length. Closure of the epiphyseal plate is a gradual process that is useful in determining bone age to establish age at death from skeletal remains, especially those of infants, children, and adolescents. If a bone fracture damages the epiphyseal plate, the fractured bone may be shorter than normal once adult stature is reached. Because damaged cartilage is avascular, it repairs much more slowly than damaged osseous tissue, which is highly vascular. Epiphyseal plate damage accelerates its ossification, thus inhibiting lengthwise growth of the bone, which is one reason fractures involving the epiphyseal plate are of particular concern in children and adolescents. As the osteoblasts become surrounded by extracellular matrix, they develop in to osteocytes. As new osseous tissue is being deposited on the outer surface of bone, osseous tissue lining the medullary cavity is destroyed by osteoclasts in the endosteum. Which activities of the epiphyseal plate account for the lengthwise growth of the diaphysis Growth in Thickness Bones grow in thickness (diameter) by the deposition of osseous tissue on the outer surface of the bone. Remodeling renews osseous tissue before deterioration sets in and heals an injured bone by replacing the damaged tissue with new osseous tissue. Remodeling also redistributes bone extracellular matrix along lines of mechanical stress (muscle pull and gravity) so that the shape of a bone is altered to keep it strongest where there is the greatest need for support. Since a bone will remodel in response to the demands placed on it, subjecting a bone to heavy loads will produce new osseous tissue that is thicker and therefore stronger than the old osseous tissue. Even after bones have reached their adult shapes and sizes, they continue to be renewed. Bone remodeling is the ongoing replacement of old osseous tissue by new osseous tissue. During remodeling, osteoclasts destroy the extracellular matrix and then osteoblasts deposit new extracellular matrix. At any given time, about 5 percent of the total bone mass in the body is being remodeled. The renewal rate for compact bone tissue is about 4 percent per year and for spongy bone tissue is about 20 percent per year. The enzymes digest collagen fibers and other organic substances, while the acids dissolve the bone minerals. The degraded bone proteins and extracellular matrix minerals, mainly calcium and phosphorus, diffuse in to nearby blood capillaries.

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When a skeletal muscle fiber is stimulated at a higher rate of 80 to 100 times per second antibiotics for acne during pregnancy quality 300 mg clindamycin, it does not relax at all. Such anaerobic activities stimulate synthesis of muscle proteins and result, over time, in increased muscle size (muscle hypertrophy). Athletes who engage in anaerobic training should have a diet that includes an adequate amount of protein. High protein intake will allow the body to synthesize muscle proteins and to increase muscle mass. As a result, aerobic training builds endurance for prolonged activities; in contrast, anaerobic training builds muscle strength for short-term feats. Interval training is a workout regimen that incorporates both types of training-for example, alternating sprints with jogging. Muscle Tone Even at rest, a muscle exhibits muscle tone (tonos tension), a small amount of tautness or tension in the muscle due to weak, involuntary contractions of its motor units. To sustain muscle tone, small groups of motor units are activated in a constantly shifting pattern, alternating from one group of motor units to the next. Muscle tone keeps skeletal muscles firm, but it does not result in a contraction strong enough to produce movement. For example, when you are awake, the tone of muscles in the back of the neck keep the head upright and prevent it from slumping forward on the chest, but they do not generate enough force to draw the head backward in to hyperextension. Muscle tone is also important in smooth muscle tissue such as that found in the gastrointestinal tract, where the walls of the digestive organs maintain a steady pressure on their contents. The tone of smooth muscle tissue in the walls of blood vessels plays a crucial role in maintaining blood pressure. Recall that a skeletal muscle contracts only after it is stimulated by motor neurons. Isotonic and Isometric Contractions Muscle contractions may be either isotonic or isometric. Parts (a) and (b) show isotonic contraction of the biceps brachii muscle in the arm; part (c) shows isometric contraction of shoulder and arm muscles. Movement No Movement Movement (a) Concentric contraction while picking up a book (b) Eccentric contraction while lowering a book (c) Isometric contraction while holding a book steady In an isotonic contraction, tension remains constant as muscle length decreases or increases; in an isometric contraction, tension increases greatly without a change in muscle length. During an eccentric isotonic contraction, the tension exerted by the myosin head resists the pull of gravity (the weight of the book, in this case) and slows the lengthening process. As the weight of the book pulls the arm downward, stretching the shoulder and arm muscles, isometric contraction of the shoulder and arm muscles counteracts the stretch. Isometric contractions are important for maintaining posture, for supporting objects in a fixed position, and for stabilizing some joints as other joints are moved.

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When a water-soluble hormone binds to its receptor at the surface of the plasma membrane virus 1999 movie cheap clindamycin 150 mg with mastercard, it acts as the first messenger. The hormone then stimulates production of a second messenger inside the cell, where specific hormonestimulated responses take place. Action of Lipid-soluble Hormones Lipid-soluble hormones bind to their receptors within target cells. In the breakdown of glycogen, binding of a single molecule of epinephrine to its receptor results in the breakdown of millions of glycogen molecules in to glucose monomers. A target cell responds more vigorously when the level of a hormone rises or when the target cell has more receptors (up-regulation). In addition, the actions of some hormones on target cells require a simultaneous or recent exposure to a second hormone to exert their full effects. For example, epinephrine alone only weakly stimulates lipolysis (the breakdown of triglycerides), but when small amounts of thyroid hormones are present, the same amount of epinephrine stimulates lipolysis more powerfully. When the effect of two hormones acting together is greater than the effect of each hormone acting alone, the two hormones are said to have a synergistic effect. For example, normal development of oocytes in the ovaries requires both follicle-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary and estrogens from the ovaries. When one hormone opposes the actions of another hormone, the two hormones are said to have antagonistic effects. An example of an antagonistic pair of hormones is insulin (which stimulates the liver to synthesize glycogen) and glucagon (which stimulates the liver to break down glycogen). When stimulated, an endocrine gland will release its hormone in more frequent bursts, thus increasing the concentration of the hormone in the blood. In the absence of stimulation, hormone release is inhibited, and the blood level of the hormone decreases. Regulation of hormone secretion normally prevents overproduction or underproduction of any given hormone. Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates the release of cortisol by the adrenal cortex. For example, during childbirth, the hormone oxytocin stimulates contractions of the uterus, and uterine contractions, in turn, stimulate more oxytocin release, a positive feedback loop that is only broken by the birth of the baby. Now that you have a general understanding of the roles of hormones in the endocrine system, we next discuss the various endocrine glands and the hormones they secrete. These hypothalamic hormones are an important link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Hypothalamic hormones that release or inhibit anterior pituitary hormones reach the anterior pituitary through a portal system. In a portal system, blood flows from one capillary network in to a portal vein, and then in to a second capillary network before returning to the heart. The superior hypophyseal arteries, branches of the internal carotid arteries, bring blood in to the hypothalamus, where the arteries divide in to a capillary network called the primary plexus. From the primary plexus, blood drains in to the hypophyseal portal veins that pass down the outside of the infundibulum.

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Customer Reviews

Killian, 39 years: The soft palate, the posterior roof of the mouth between the nasopharynx and oropharynx, has five openings: two internal nares, two openings that lead in to the auditory (eustachian) tubes, and the opening in to the oropharynx. Myofibrils and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum At high magnification the sarcoplasm appears stuffed with little parallel threads.

Frithjof, 35 years: In particular, neutropaenia (less than 500 × 106/L) is accompanied by a high risk of bacteraemia with both Gram-negative and -positive organisms. Axons extend from the hypothalamus to sympathetic and parasympathetic nuclei in the brain stem and spinal cord.

Peer, 37 years: Clinical use and dose Clinical use and dose Metoclopramide is effective in most causes of vomiting, apart from motion sickness. If Mustafa experiences pain after his physical therapy sessions, how will that sensation reach his somatosensory area Mustafa is receiving physical therapy to help him regain his balance and his proprioceptive capability.

Silvio, 48 years: The right vagus nerve courses along the lateral aspect of the right carotid artery, crosses anterior to the right subclavian artery near its origin, and descends in to the mediastinum posterior to the right brachiocephalic vein. For example, an increased rate of impulses from the sympathetic division increases heart rate, and an increased rate of impulses from the parasympathetic division decreases heart rate.

Gnar, 56 years: The long-term consequences are determined by the degree of neurologic trauma~ Longterm functional deficits are rare after isolated axillary artery injuries, but patients with combined neurovascular trauma may experience severe disability and even require late arm amputation. Multiunit smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of large arteries, in airways to the lungs, in the arrector pili muscles that attach to hair follicles, and in the internal eye muscles.